Roman Farming-The Lifeblood of the Roman Economy

The Roman economy was pretty simple. Slavery and agriculture formed the basis, along with some craftsmen in the cities. The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various grains, olives, and grapes. Olive oil and wine, outside of direct food stuffs, were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Farmers could donate surplus crops to the government instead of a direct tax in the form of money. This system allowed both rulers to gain popularity with the masses through free grain distribution and to help to feed the legions at no direct cost. It also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated to more taxes. Rome’s agriculture reached a peak during the late republic to early empire period.

            Roman farms fell into three general size distinctions. These sizes were measured in iugeri, which were area units about 240 by 120 feet. Smaller farms ranged in the double digits of iugeri, medium sized farms up to 500 iugeri, and large farms were over 500 iugeri. To subsist, an average sized family would need about 8 iugeri, while larger farms were needed to earn a profit with a surplus of food. In general, most Romans were not farmers for profit and farmed primarily to subsist.

            K. Greene, in The Archeology of the Roman Economy writes:

           There is profound significance in grape and olive cultivation as opposed to the gathering of wild fruits. These plants require different soil conditions from cereals and pulses, and are harvested later than those crops. Thus, an area of mixed land can proluce two extra harvests with the same amount of labour; however, an investment of time is required to plant, grow and tend the vines and trees before they will produce crops. In Colin Renfrew's view, '. . . the development of Mediterranean polyculture was as important for the emergence of civilisation as was irrigation farming in the Near East. He envisaged a spiral of development, as the demands of a growing population led to the exploitation of tree and vine crops, which in turn led to a higher level of production which could support more people, a proportion of whom could be engaged in work other than agriculture. The coincidence of Minoan and Mycenean civilisation with the areas of early olive and grape cultivation in Europe is therefore highly significant.

            Olive oil was an extremely important crop in Rome; it was used everywhere. In Roman bath houses, it was often used as a body rub, likewise with Greek Gymnasiums. Athletes often rubbed themselves down before a workout or match. Indeed, it was often the job of a single person to supply the bath house or gymnasium with olive oil, and prices were generally good.

            The importance of farming to the Romans is exemplified by Cato the Elder in his writing of “De Agri Cultura” Part of this importance sprung from the fact that the only business activity allowed to senators in Rome was farming and trading in their own farmed goods.

            Crops grown on Roman farms included wheat, barley, millet, kidney beans, pea, broad bean, lentil, flax, sesame, chickpea, hemp, turnip, olive, pear, apple, fig, and plum.

Instructions on Farming (circa 400 B.C.)

Anon

The month of May

Thirty-one days, with the nones falling on the seventh day. The days has fourteen and one-half hours. The night has nine and one-half hours. The sun is under the sign of Taurus. The month of May is under the protection of Apollo.

The corn is weeded.

The sheep are shorn.

The wool is washed.

The young steers are put under the yoke.

The vetch in the meadows is cut.

The lustration of the crops is made. Sacrifices to Mercury and Flora.

Purchasing a Farm (Circa 170 B.C.)

Cato the Elder

            When you are thinking of buying a farm, be sure not to complete the purchase over-hastily, take every trouble to visit it, and do not be satisfied with a single tour of inspection. If it is a good property, the more often you go, the more satisfaction it ought to give you. Pay attention to how the neighbors’ farms look. In a good district, they ought to look very well. Be sure not to commit yourself, but go into the farm and inspect it, leaving yourself a way of getting out of the deal. It should have a good climate and be free from storms, and the soil should be naturally fertile. If possible, the foot of a hill is best, facing south in a healthy spot, with a good supply of laborers. The water supply must be plentiful, and it must be near a large town, or the sea or a navigable river, or a good well-used road. You want your farm to be in a district where land does not frequently change hands, and where people regret having sold their property. Be sure the building are in good condition, and do not be over-hasty in rejecting a former owner’s advice or methods. A better purchase can be made from a man who is a good farmer and a good builder. When you visit the property, look around to see how many oil-presses and wine-vats there are. If the number is small, then you will know that the harvest is proportionately meager. The farm should not necessarily have masses of equipment, but It must be well-sited. Take care to see that equipment is kept to a minimum to avoid extravagance on the land. Remember that fields are like men; however much profit they make, if they are extravagant, not much is left.

            If I were asked what is the best kind of farm, I would suggest a vineyard of about 65 acres in the best situation with various types of soil, if, that is, the wine is good and plentiful. Next to it comes a watered garden, third and osier-bed, fourth, an olive grove, fifth pasturage, sixth arable land, seventh a wood for timber, eighth an orchard and ninth a wood for acorns for feed.

            Tunics, togas, cloaks, aprons, and clogs can be bought at Rome; caps, iron tools; scythes, spades, hoes, axes, harness, ornaments and chains at Cales or Minturae; spades at Venafrum; carts and drags at Suessa or in lucania; jars and pots at Alba Longa or Rome; tiles at Venafrum. Ploughs bought at Rome are best for tough soil, Campanian ones for rich dark soil. Roman yokes are the best. Detachable plough-shares are preferable. It is better to buy oil-mills at Pompeii and at Rufus’s yard at Nola; nails and bars at Rome; pails, olive vessels, water pitchers, wine urns and other bronze vessels at Capua or Nola. Campanian baskets from Capua are useful. Pulley ropes and all other ropes can be had from Capua, and Roman baskets at Suessa. Lucius Tunnius of Casinum and Gaius, son of Lucious Mennius of Venafrum make the best ropesfor the wine-press.

Of course, the Roman religion obviously also came into play during their agricultural work, here Cato writes about the ritual for a bountiful harvest for wheat, barley, beans, &c.

The Harvest Ritual (circa 160 B.C.)

Cato the Elder

Before the harvest the sacrifice of the pig must be offered in this manner: offer a sow as a porca praecidanea to Ceres before you harvest spelt, wheat, barley, beans, and rape seed. Offer a prayer, with incense and wine, to Janus, Jupiter, and Juno, before offering the sow. Offer a pile of cakes to Janus, saying, “Father Janus, in offering these cakes to you, I humbly pray that you will be propitious and merciful to me and my children, my house, and my household.” Then make an offering of cake to Jupiter with these words: “In offering ou this cake, O Jupiter, I humbly pray that you, pleased with this offering, will be propitious and merciful to me and my children, my house, and my household.” Then present the wine to Janus saying: “Father Janus, as I have prayed humbly in offering you the cakes, so may you in the same way be honored by this wine now placed before you.” Then pray to Jupiter thus: “Jupiter, may you be honored in accepting this cake; may you be honored in accepting the wine placed before you.” Then sacrifice the porca praecidanea. When the entrails have been removed, make an offering of cakes to Janus, and pray in the same way as you have prayed before. Offer a cake to Jupiter, praying just as before. In the same way offer wine to Janus and offer wine to Jupiter, in the same way as before in offering the pile of cakes, and in the consecration of the cake. Afterward offer the entrails and wine to Ceres.